For more than a century, neuroscience has been built around a neuron-centered worldview. The heroes of this story are familiar neurotransmitters: dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, glutamate, and GABA. Textbooks describe neurons communicating across synapses in brain circuits using these specialized chemical messengers. The vast ‘connectome’ network of axons and dendrites was believed to determine mental events. Neurons were viewed as the only true informatio

Infants born without a cerebral cortex demonstrate that they still have a variety of conscious experiences.

Alternative splicing of messenger RNA has been shown to be critical for the development of the human brain. The ability to make many new and complex proteins allowed the development of the enormous molecular complexity in different neurons and in different regions. For some reason, in evolution humans developed the ability to use alternative splicing much more than other species. This ability is most prominent in the brain. This post updates the most recent understanding of h

With each mental event, dramatic structural changes occur inside large numbers of neurons, outside of neurons in the extracellular space, at the synapses between neurons and in glial brain cells. Remarkably, these molecular changes occur instantaneously all over the brain in specific circuits using many different mechanisms (some have been described in previous posts). For each different momentary event, the same neuron can be used in completely different circuits. Signals in

A thought ……. Suddenly, new synapses Learning a fact ……. Suddenly, a new brain cell in the hippocampus…. … Axons are built, axons are pruned. How does the brain know how to do this? How does neuroplasticity work? Learning stimulates new brain cells. Mental events instantly affect changes in dendrites and synapses. The brain noticeably changes shape with attention, meditation, exercise, diet, and habits of life.The active brain does much more. It changes its function when it

The regulation of DNA is fantastically complex with many different layers: changing 3D shapes of the chromatin and loops of DNA; regional differences in nuclear DNA; large numbers of different epigenetic tags on DNA nucleotides and protective protein histone molecules; complex DNA repair mechanisms and alternative messenger RNA splicing; hundreds of thousands of transcription factors; and many different kinds of small and large RNAs that influence every aspect of the process.

As more animals are found to have advanced cognitive ability, it is clear that the human brain is not the model for all advanced abilities. There are animals that have greater capacities; and those with similar capacities can use very different brain structures. Intelligence evolved a number of different ways. Last week 28 studies revealed unprecedented detail about the songbird’s brain. They, for the first time, compared vocal learning similarities in songbirds and humans. T

From recent scientific findings, it is certainly possible that quite unusual talents and experiences could be available to everyone. This post will outline extraordinary talents and experiences that may be available to everyone under certain circumstances. It is a summary and update of a series of four posts on research into sudden changes in capacities for extreme memory, mathematics, art and music; changes in body consciousness, and out of body experiences; psychedelic expe

Previous posts have described the very complex pathways that create membranes to surround the entire cell and to build vital cell compartments and well known organelles. A post noted how different types of fatty membranes are built for each organelle with many different complex shapes. These include mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, the nucleus and many kinds of vesicles. Vesicles are used for transport, to combat invading microbes and to send information such as with neur

Jumping off the cliff … lift off … flying … what a feeling ….weightless… looking back at my room… elation, sadness … who is back there … are they following me Suddenly waking up, I realize that it was “just a dream.” But, at that moment I recognize that the same self-identity, my self, my sense of “I” exists in these two states, dreaming and waking. Although quite different, it was me in the dream and it is now me awake. Feeling rested, I look at the clock and see tha

Daniel Tammet was asked to memorize the number Pi. As we may remember from school, Pi is an irrational number that is defined as the ratio of the circumference of a circle to the diameter of the circle. It is also related to many other different mathematical equations including those that define “fractals” called the Mandelbrot set (above picture). The number has an infinite series of digits with no discernable pattern, starting with 3.1415926358979... Tammet was able to r

Lying down, almost asleep… wait… vibrations, tingling …. I’m…I’m separating …. lifting above my body .... floating above my body, …. looking down I see myself lying there … Who am I? .. I know who I am and I can see my body …. but I’m not in the body…. Are these experiences “real” or brain pathology? Could they be “merely dreams.” Upon awakening from a dream, I realize that my sense of “I” existed in the dream and now exists in the waking state. A previous post question

Psychedelics burst into modern life with the discovery of LSD. The chemical lysergic acid diethyl amide, known as LSD, was discovered in 1938 by the Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman, working for Sandoz Pharmaceuticals, while studying ergotamine, a chemical from grain fungus. Five years later in 1943 Hoffman accidently ingested it and had an experience, which he described as an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of col

the night is very dark -- no moon -- no clouds ….... stars are blazingly bright ...…. billions of stars in the milky way are so clear …….. the vastness is incomprehensible ….…… I feel so small …...... am I part of this universe? ………. now, fear …..... in an instant, I am part of this one great universe ……….... now, calm, bliss ........….. suddenly, I am back in my yard looking up at the stars A sudden dramatic sense of “oneness” with the universe is often part of spiri

Two thousand years ago Aristotle wrote that cells lining blood vessels determine organs. Recently, he was found correct when capillary cells demonstrated elaborate communication with stem cells and many other cells. Unique capillary cells in each organ have dramatic effects on the life of the cells in that region. With elaborate communication between immune and blood cells, tissue stem cells and neurons, they are the brains of the local region. Now, another cell, called peric

With subjective experience new cells are incorporated into the brain and new circuits are created, altered, strengthened or weakened. The static view of the brain has been disproven and it is now known that the brain is very active—constantly changing connections and growing circuits, thought-by-thought, minute-by-minute and day-by-day. Many different brain mechanisms alter neuronal connections—in large networks, not just in individual synapses. In fact, the larger the brain

Current science has no explanation for subjective experience. There isn’t even an adequate definition of consciousness. Recent research continues many approaches in attempts to find a brain region that is correlated with basic awareness or consciousness. In order to proceed without definitions, study attempts to find simple awareness without specific content. But, recent findings show that for most mental events, almost the entire brain is part of wide circuits signaling in m

It is well known that neurons send a variety of intelligent critical signals to other neurons, glia, and immune cells using neurotransmitters, vesicles of several types, cytokines and nanotubes between cells. Elaborate back and forth communication between immune cells uses a wide variety of cytokines, neurotransmitters and vesicles with genetic material. Recently, intelligent decision-making by many other cells was discovered, including epithelial cells lining the intestine a

Dendrites have been considered passive calculators of input signals. In fact, they are extremely dynamic and can produce their own electrical spikes. Dendrites have a vast array of different ways to function when helping to determine the next axon action potential. Recent research has begun to scratch the surface of the complexity of dendrite calculations. A previous post described details about the ever changing and varied dendrite spines and necks with many unique shapes th

Living among trillions of microbes, it is necessary to determine which are going to cause disease. This is done by recognizing patterns with special receptors on immune cells—pattern recognition receptors or PPRs. Once triggered, receptors activate powerful mechanisms to cause inflammation that is life saving but, also, can attack our own cells with chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases. In fact, as with every other critical aspect of physiology, pattern recognition re